EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOR ASIAN AMERICAN WELL-BEING
AsianCrit Case Studies
Exposing Racism to Promote Asian American Well-Being
There is a small body of literature examining Asian American racial and ethnic identity, racial discrimination, and distress. We will examine some of the research focused on the racialized experiences of Asian Americans and how this impacts their psychological well-being.
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Continuing with our social constructivist instruction: While reading on about the research, reflect on the following questions.
Whenever I think about racism or racial issues, how have I considered the perspectives of Asian Americans?
What implicit beliefs do I have about Asian Americans?
When conducting my research and reading contemporary educational research, have I thought about the perspectives of Asian American students or teachers?
Racial Microaggressions and the Asian American Experience
Sue et al. (2007)
Sue and scholars conducted a qualitative study, using semi-structured interviews to explore racial microaggressions (subtle, covert forms of racial discrimination) experienced by 10 Asian Americans. Participants were ask open-ended questions related to racial microaggressions, implicit and explicit stereotyping, aversive racism, and Asian American experiences of racism. Interviews were conducted in focus groups of five participants. After analyzing interview transcripts, eight microaggression themes were identified.
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1. Alien in Own Land- assumptions that all Asian Americans are foreigners or not truly American.
2. Ascription of Intelligence- stereotype that Asian Americans are all smart and good at math; pressure to live up this standard, particularly if participant is not good at math or dislikes math. Perception of Asian American intelligence also implies that other people of Color are not as intelligent, which perpetuates even more racial stereotypes.
3. Denial of Racial Reality- "Asians are the new Whites." The model minority myth denies Asian American realities of racial discrimination and bias.
4. Exoticization of Asian American Women- submissive, docile; "Asian fetishes" of subservience as sexually pleasing objects (i.e. Geishas).
5. Invalidation of Interethnic Differences- assumption that Asians are all Chinese or Japanese and that they share the same experiences. Denial of cultural differences and history of conflict between ethnic groups.
6. Pathologizing Cultural Values- feeling forced to conform to Western norms (i.e. talking more in class).
7. Second Class Citizenship- Whites being given preferential treatment as customers over Asian Americans.
8. Invisibility- messages of Asian Americans not being an ethnic minority, experiencing little or no discrimination, having unimportant racial concerns, being considered like Whites, but never fully accepted by White peers.
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Notes: This research uncovers some of the implicit racism that Asian Americans experience. It is necessary to uncover implicit racism, in order to combat its' negative effects on people of Color, including Asian Americans.
Iwamoto & Liu (2010)
Racial Identity, Ethnic Identity, Asian Values, & Race-Related Stress on Asian American and International Students' Well-Being
Iwamoto and Liu (2010) researched the following questions:
What is the relationship between racial identity, ethnic identity, Asian cultural values, and race-related stress in predicting psychological well-being of Asian American college students?
How does racial identity, ethnic identity, and Asian values moderate the effects of race-related stress on psychological well-being?
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Their theoretical constructs include social identity, race-related stress, racial and ethnic identity, and Asian Values. In social identity theory, individuals identifying with an ethnic group may have a buffer against negative effects of racism. Research has proven that race-related stress burdens individuals' cognitive resources to cope with racism, threatening the individual's well-being. Since limited research has examined the effects of race-related stress on Asian Americans, Iwamoto and Liu sought to study the psychological stress of Asian Americans related to race-related stress. Since previous research has demonstrated that racial identity is linked to psychological adjustment, awareness of racism, and collective self-esteem, it is critical to examine how Asian American racial identity may moderate race-related stress on well-being. Ethnic identity is another integral aspect of Asian American identity, and should be investigated as a moderator for the relationship between race-related stress and well-being. Also, given that Asian Americans are inherently a immigration based population, adhering to cultural values (collectivism, deference to authority, emotional self-control, humility) may play a vital role in developing positive self-concepts among Asians Americans.
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They utilized an online survey with standardized scales and inventories measuring all variables as the method for their study. Participants included 402 Asian Americans and Asian international college students from Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Taiwanese, South Asian, Filipino, Japanese, and mixed Asian descent. 63.7% were women and 36.3% were men. Most participants were second or first generation Asian Americans.
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Results: After conducting preliminary, correlational, and hierarchical regression analyses, they found that individuals who feel secure and have positive beliefs about his or her racial group and are conscious about the effects of racism have higher levels of eudaimonic well-being. They also identified that the constructs of racial identity and ethnic identity uniquely contribute to the well-being of Asian American college students.
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Notes: This study provided significant insights into the moderating effects of racial identity, ethnic identity, and Asian cultural values. By closely examining these factors, we can learn more on how to best encourage Asian American well-being in strength-based and culturally sustaining methods.
Lee (2005)
Resilience Against Discrimination: Ethnic Identity and Other-Group Orientation as Protective Factors for Korean Americans
Lee investigated how ethnic identity and other-group orientation deferentially protected against perceived ethnic discrimination for Korean American college students. Previous research has shown cultural factors to be significant protective factors for racial and ethnic minorities in buffering the negative effects of discrimination. The hypothesis is that Korean Americans with a strong ethnic identity will feel more connected to their social environments, and are thus less likely to experience psychological distress when experiencing discrimination. Also, Korean Americans with a high other-group orientation (one's attitudes towards other ethnic groups) may feel more support from positive relationships from other ethnic groups, thus experiencing less distress from discrimination.
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Method: 84 Korean American undergraduate students at the University of Texas at Austin completed standardized measures for the following variables in a survey packet: ethnic identity, other-group orientation, perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and social-connectedness. Then, Lee completed preliminary, primary moderator, and post hoc power analyses.
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Results: Pride in ethnic identity (EI-Pride) was the sole aspect of ethnic identity that moderated resilience against discrimination for Korean Americans. EI-Pride operated as a protective-reactive factor. For instance, Korean Americans with strong ethnic pride take greater offense at discrimination and experience more emotional and social distress. Contrary to author's hypothesis and previous research, other-group orientation did not moderate the effects of perceived discrimination at all. A potential explanation could be that given Korean American tendencies to only identify explicitly as Korean American (in comparison to other Asian ethnic groups), other-group orientation may not be a relevant source of support.
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Notes: Both Iwamoto and Liu (2010) and this study shed light onto the nuances of racial and ethnic identity, using quantitative cross-sectional data. Protective factors of Asian American racial and ethnic identity should continued to be studied, so that future studies can explore how to best promote these factors, like fostering ethnic identity pride. Lee's (2005) research specifically examines the ethnic identity of Korean Americans. It is critical to remember that Asian American is an umbrella term for many ethnic groups and cultures. It is imperative to study both the racial identity and well-being of all Asian Americans, as well as the identities of specific cultures. There are similar values and racialized experiences shared across ethnic groups, but the lived experiences across different cultures will vary tremendously. Just remember to always keep historical and cultural context in mind. For instance, remember when Japan invaded China and Korea in WWII? Although all three nationalities would be identified as Asian American in the U.S., they have very different, cultural, political, and familial backgrounds.
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Reflection
Now that you have read some key articles in Asian Critical Studies, what are your thoughts to the following:​
What have you learned regarding your implicit beliefs toward Asian Americans?
Do you think there are any limitations to studying Asian American racial and ethnic identity?
How do you think we, as educational researches, can expound upon AsianCrit studies to better meet the needs of students?
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